Race differences in pain and pain-related risk factors among former professional American-style football players.

ABSTRACT: The burden of pain is unequal across demographic groups, with broad and persisting race differences in pain-related outcomes in the United States. Members of racial and ethnic minorities frequently report more pervasive and severe pain compared with those in the majority, with at least some disparity attributable to differences in socioeconomic status. Whether race disparities in pain-related health outcomes exist among former professional football players is unknown. We examined the association of race with pain outcomes among 3995 former professional American-style football players who self-identified as either Black or White. Black players reported more intense pain and higher levels of pain interference relative to White players, even after controlling for age, football history, comorbidities, and psychosocial factors. Race moderated associations between several biopsychosocial factors and pain; higher body mass index was associated with more pain among White but not among Black players. Fatigue and psychosocial factors were more strongly related to pain among Black players relative to White players. Collectively, the substantial social and economic advantages of working as a professional athlete did not seem to erase race-related disparities in pain. We highlight an increased burden of pain among elite Black professional football players and identify race-specific patterns of association between pain and biopsychosocial pain risk factors. These findings illuminate potential future targets of interventions that may serve to reduce persistent disparities in the experience and impact of pain.

Multi-modality human phenotyping to examine subjective and objective health afflictions in former professional American-style football players: The In-Person Assessment (IPA) protocol.

BACKGROUND: Participation in American-style football (ASF), one of the most popular sports worldwide, has been associated with adverse health outcomes. However, prior clinical studies of former ASF players have been limited by reliance on subjective self-reported data, inadequate sample size, or focus on a single disease process in isolation. OBJECTIVE: To determine the burden of objective multi-system pathology and its relationship with subjective health complaints among former professional ASF players. METHODS: The In-Person Assessment is a case-control, multi-day, deep human phenotyping protocol designed to characterize and quantify pathology among former professional ASF players. Participants, recruited from an on-going large-scale longitudinal cohort study, will include 120 men who report either no health conditions, a single health condition, or multiple health conditions across the key domains of cardiometabolic disease, disordered sleep, chronic pain, and cognitive impairment. Data will be collected from validated questionnaires, structured interviews, physical examinations, multi-modality imaging, and functional assessments over a 3-day study period. A pilot study was conducted to assess feasibility and to obtain participant feedback which was used to shape the final protocol. RESULTS: This study provides a comprehensive assessment of objective multi-system pathology and its relationship with subjective health complaints among former professional ASF players. CONCLUSION: The study will determine whether subjective health complaints among former professional ASF players are explained by objective explanatory pathology and will provide novel opportunities to examine the interrelatedness of co-morbidities. It is anticipated that this protocol will be applicable to other clinical and occupational populations.

Healthspan and chronic disease burden among young adult and middle-aged male former American-style professional football players.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationships between age, healthspan and chronic illness among former professional American-style football (ASF) players. METHODS: We compared age-specific race-standardised and body mass index-standardised prevalence ratios of arthritis, dementia/Alzheimer's disease, hypertension and diabetes among early adult and middle-aged (range 25-59 years) male former professional ASF players (n=2864) with a comparator cohort from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and National Health Interview Survey, two representative samples of the US general population. Age was stratified into 25-29, 30-39, 40-49 and 50-59 years. RESULTS: Arthritis and dementia/Alzheimer's disease were more prevalent among ASF players across all study age ranges (all p<0.001). In contrast, hypertension and diabetes were more prevalent among ASF players in the youngest age stratum only (p<0.001 and p<0.01, respectively). ASF players were less likely to demonstrate intact healthspan (ie, absence of chronic disease) than the general population across all age ranges. CONCLUSION: These data suggest the emergence of a maladaptive early ageing phenotype among former professional ASF players characterised by premature burden of chronic disease and reduced healthspan. Additional study is needed to investigate these findings and their impact on morbidity and mortality in former ASF players and other athlete groups.